Table 2 Interaction of enteric viruses with intestinal mucus

Rhesus rotavirus (RRV)

In vitro and

In vivo mouse

Virus infection decreases in the presence of mucin isolated from human milk

[110]

In vivo mouse

↑Bacteroides and Akkermansia populations which have mucin-digesting properties, leading to ↑ RRV virulence

[111]

In vitro

Suckling intestinal mucins neutralize RRV more effectively than adult mucins

[112]

In vivo mouse

↑ mucin-digesting bacteria

↓ Lactobacillus species

↑ rotavirus virulence

[111]

Suckling intestinal mucins neutralized RRV more effectively than adult mucins

[112]

Epizootic Diarrhea of Infant Mice (EDIM) mouse rotavirus strain

↑ MUC2 mRNA levels

Potent anti-rotaviral effect of mucin isolated from 4dpi infected mice

[113]

Human rotavirus

In vitro

Possible binding of P[19] with mucin cores 2, 4, and 6

[114]

Human P[19] and P[II] genogroup (P[6], P[8], P[4])

Possible interaction of P[II] genogroup RV VP8*s with mucin core 2

[115]

RVA/Human-wt/IND/mcs60/2011/

G3P

Strong P[10] binding with mucin core 2 and weak binding to mucin core 4

[116]

Simian rotavirus

In vivo mouse

Rotavirus binds to sialomucins

[117]

SARS-CoV-2

In vivo monkey

↓ Ki67 and mucin-containing goblet cells in GIT with intragastric inoculation

[118]

TGEV and PEDV

In vitro

Attenuated infection in the presence of mucus layer derived from porcine intestinal organoid air–liquid interface monolayer

[119]

PEDV

In vivo pig

Acidic mucins in PEDV-infected pigs 2dpi

↓ Goblet cells in PEDV infected pigs 1-5dpi (nursery) and 3-5dpi (weaned)

[120, 121]

In vitro and

In vivo pig

Antiviral activity of MUC2 and mucus-derived Calpain-1 on Vero E6 cells

Oral administration of Calpain-1 in piglets provides resistance to infection

[122]

Feline enteric coronavirus serotype 1

In vitro

Treatment of feline intestinal epithelial cell cultures with bovine submaxillary mucin inhibits subsequent viral infection

[123]

IBV Mass-41 and IBDV serotype 1

In vitro and

In vivo chicken

Calcium binding protein 1 (CALB1) derived from ileal mucus significantly suppresses the replication of both viruses

[124]

Human adenovirus (HuAdV) 5p

In vitro

Preferential infection of goblet cells in human enteroids and potent neutralization by the enteric human alpha-defensin HD5

[125]

Human norovirus GII.10 virus-like particles

Antiviral activity of porcine gastric mucin measured by ELISA in terms of IC₅₀ and OD reduction

[126, 127]

Enterovirus 71 (EV71)

↓ expression of goblet cell–derived mucins

[128]

Murine astrovirus (fecal isolated)

In vivo mouse

Active infection in small intestinal goblet cells, ↑ mucus-associated bacteria, ↑ E. coli colonization resistance

[129]

Human astrovirus 1 and 8

In vitro

↑ virus infectivity on Caco-2 cells with

↑ dose of porcine stomach mucin

[130]

AIV H9N2

In vivo chicken

↓ mRNA expression of MUC2 at 5dpi

[100]