Fig. 6

Major differential taxonomic features between PDAC patients and healthy controls visualized via a linear discriminant analysis (LDA) effect size (LEfSe) cladogram and histogram. The cladogram shows the phylogenetic relationships of differentially abundant taxa for the PDAC groups (red) with their controls (green). The size of the nodes is proportional to the taxon’s abundance. In the histogram, positive LDA scores indicate enrichment of taxa in the PDAC groups (red) relative to healthy controls (green), and negative LDA scores indicate depletion of the respective taxa. A LEfSe cladogram and B LEfSe histogram of FPDAC vs. FHC. C LEfSe cladogram and D LEfSe histogram of IPDAC vs. IHC. Kruskal–Wallis sum rank test, p < 0.01, LDA scores (log10) > 4. FPDAC, Finnish PDAC; FHC, Finnish HC; IPDAC, Iranian PDAC; IHC, Iranian HC; HC, healthy control; PDAC, pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma